I’m more than happy to receive your comment. This is my midterm essay for Developmental Psychology. The grade is not really good, but I hope it will still be useful. ^^
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The definition of intelligence has gradually changed from time to time. Recent advances in defining intelligence combine psychometric and information-processing approaches. In this essay, I would like to review chapter 8 of Berk (2009) on intelligence. Then, I will discuss the implications for Singapore.
Berk (2009) has mentioned various theories on intelligence. One of these theories is Garder’s theory of multiple intelligence. Gardner (as cited in Berk, 2009) has introduced 8 kinds of intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. This new approach has many implications in Singapore, which I will discuss at the second part of this essay.
Berk (2009) has also mentioned about the measurement of intelligence. It is important to see how intelligence is assessed because nowadays people are curious about the relationships between cognitive processing and mental test scores. The most common indicator of intelligence is Intelligence Quotient (IQ) score. However, in spite of the strong correlation between IQ scores and school grades (Berk, 2009), Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Bundy (2001) show that the correlation varies in range for different samples, different tests, and different areas of achievement. Therefore, this correlation between IQ and school grades must be seen carefully. In addition, we should also realize that the standardized achievements usually overlap with IQ test. Another problem is the reliability ofIQ test. As an illustration, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV), which a widely used IQ test for children (Berk, 2009), is consistently scoring lower than the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III (WAIS-III). Therefore, it must be used with precaution when we use WISC-IV to diagnose children with significantly low intellectual ability because of the possible floor effect (Whitaker, 2008). In order to solve this problem, Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Bundy (2001) suggested to correct the correlation of atenuation, correct restriction of range. Hence, we should not rely too much on one type of intelligence test.
In Berk (2009), Guignard&Lubart(2006) have stated that “creativity involves alternating between divergent and convergent thinking”. However, intelligence test only emphasizes on convergent thinking, result of which is a single correct answer, rather than generation of multiple possibilities which is produced by divergent thinking (Guilford, 1985, as cited in Berk, 2009). In addition, Jausovec & Jausovec (2000) show that there is a distinction in brain functioning between highly intelligent and highly creative individuals. It seems that the correlation between IQ and creativity is high because the difference between them only related to specific activity of the brain. Therefore, it is true that definition of giftedness should include creativity because intelligence as measured in intelligence test has not included creativity. In fact, as creativity requires various cognitive abilities that is not measured in intelligence test (Dietrich, 2004), we cannot deny that a child is gifted not only because he scores high in intelligence, but also because he is able to integrate his different cognitive abilities to produce something.
In the second part of the essay, I will explain the implications of chapter 8 about intelligence for Singapore. First, I will discuss how intelligence is measured in Singapore. Second, I will present how Singapore’s education system reflects Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence. Third, I will analyze to what extent Gifted Education Programme (GEP) in Singapore has included creativity in the definition of giftedness. At the end, I will discuss early intervention system in Singapore’s context.
In the context of Singapore, they emphasize the importance of achievement tests to measure intelligence. Achievement test assess actual knowledge and skill achievement rather than potential intelligence (Berk, 2009).The evidence of how Singapore put more weight on achievement test is the use of Primary School of Leaving Examination (PSLE) as a foundation to stream the students to normal academics, normal technical, and express course in secondary school(Ministry of Education, 2009). Therefore, the intelligence that they measure is affected by their social and emotional factors. Children from a broken-home family and children with low socio-economic status might have problem coping with their study. On one hand, achievement test shows the students’ effort and motivation because it is a result of what they have studied. On the other hand, it might underestimate students’ real intelligence that cannot be seen in PSLE because of external factors.
The problem with PSLE is it only tests mathematics, English, science, and mother tounge language (MOE, 2009). Despite the fact that PSLE only assess logico-mathematical and linguistic intelligence, this test determines the students’ future to large extent because their streaming system is based on PSLE. Hence, this achievement test underestimates the importance of other aspects of intelligence. As a result, the students who are not high in logico-mathematical and linguistic might not get the same opportunity to achieve more things even though they might score high in other aspects of intelligence. As a solution, since 2005, normal technical students are allowed to take 1 normal academic subjects (MOE, 2005). This goes along with the Gardner’s theory because it allows students who are only strong in specific subject to challenge themselves by taking a higher module.
The problem of how the students are assessed also occurs in the screening test for GEP. Despite the relationship found between creativity and intelligence, the nature of how the students are categorized gifted does not include assessment on creativity. In Singapore, primary 3 students will have to do screening test to know whether they are eligible to GEP. The GEP screening tests consist of English language and mathematics. The shortlisted students will have to sit for another test consists of English language, mathematics, and general ability (MOE, 2009). In fact, gifted students who have a specific area in creativity in some fields, for instance, in arts, might not be in GEP because they might be weak in the areas tested in the screening test. Hence, the GEP selection system does not recognize the importance of creativity as part of giftedness because the test only focuses on convergent thinking ability.
Nevertheless, the programmes offered for the gifted students reflect the understanding of creativity as part of intelligence. They are offered “differentiated curriculum that is pitched to challenge and stretched item”. As an example, GEP programme offers Individualized Study Options which allows the students to do an independent research project according to the students’ special interest (MOE, 2009). This option might be a burden for non-GEP students if they do not have certain level of intelligence, but it provides a challenge for GEP students. That is why it is not offered in non-GEP. This programme also taps on creativity aspect of giftedness because the students are given opportunity to produce a novel research project according to their interest and the integration of different abilities that they have.
Gardner’s concept of multiple intelligences is also recognized in Singapore through the high demand of co-curricular activities (CCAs) and the integration of Community Involvement Programme (CIP).There are various CCAs offered in Singapore’s schools: sports, uniformed groups, performing arts groups, and club and societies (MOE, 2009). CIP is offered in secondary school and junior colleges. In this programme, the students are involved in community work (MOE, 2009). CCA and CIP can develop other aspects of intelligence that is not emphasized in the normal syllabus. As an example, CIP will develop students’ interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence because they do not only need to be responsive to other people’s emotion, but they also learn to identify their inner feelings and values. In addition, even though the place of other aspects of intelligences in mainstream school is only in CCA and CIP, Singapore has specialised schools for the students who are excellent in sports and arts. They have Singapore Sports School and School of The Arts that they can choose after they leave primary school (MOE, 2009).
Berk (2009) also mentioned about the importance of early intervention. What are the relevance of early intervention and the discussion of the definition of intelligence? First, we have to see how early intervention works in Singapore. In this essay, the early intervention programme that I refer to is early intervention for children with special needs. The early intervention in Singapore starts with identification of children with developmental delay through various sources: hospitals, clinics, preschool centres, parents, relatives, or caregivers (Lim and Quah, 2004). Singapore has a lot of childcare centres which also provide services for children with special needs. The education system also allows the flexibility for them to continue in mainstream school (MOE, 2009).
Second, to understand the relevance of early intervention and the discussion of the definition of intelligence, I would like to discuss the possible implications of not having an early intervention. As stated earlier, Singapore has relied so much on achievement test to measure intelligence. Without early intervention, the children with special needs will be end up labelled as ‘low-ability students’. As an illustration, an autistic child has unique cognitive skills. He reads for information rather than for fictional enjoyment, he has an exceptional long-term memory for events and facts, and he is fascinated by a particular topic (Lim and Quah, 2004). Achievement test cannot display this unique feature. Achievement test will only show a low grade of language skill. The impression that the child created is unwillingness to cooperate because they seem unresponsive and uninterested in participating in class activities. Therefore, early intervention can help the children to achieve things according to their capacity. Singapore has promoted early intervention programme for children with special needs, starting from assessment and diagnosis of early identification, therapy and parent training supporting services, information and referral services, and integrated childcare programmes (Ministry of Community Development, Youth, and Sports, 2007).
In summary, Berk (2009) has succeeded to present the new approaches of the definition of intelligence, one of which is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. It has influenced many aspects of education system. Students with an exceptional ability in certain field is more appreciated. The system also allows more integration among different skills of students. However, the impact of the streaming system needs further research because we do not know whether it affects their self-esteem and whether a stereotype exists because of the streaming system. The use of achievement test in Singapore to stream people also needs to be seen carefully whether it inhibits the intervention for students with high potential who do not have condusive environment, for instance, children with socio-emotional problem. The GEP has recognized the role of creativity in its programme, but it is restricted to people with exceptional ability in subjects tested in the screening test. In accomodating children with special needs, early intervention has been emphasized a lot in Singapore education system.
Reference List
Berk, Laura E. (8th Ed). (2009). Child Development. Singapore: Pearson.
Dietrich, Arne. (2004). The cognitive neuroscience of creativity. Psychonomic bulletin and review, 11 , 1011-1026.
Gardner, H.E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the twenty-first century. New York: Basic Books.
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Jausovec, N., & Jausovec, K. (2000). Differences in resting EEG related to ability. Brain Topogr, 12, 229-240.
Lim, L., & Quah, M. L. (Ed.). (2004). Educating learners with diverse abilities. Singapore: National Institute of Education.
Ministry of Community Development, Youth, and Sports. Enabling Master Plan 2007-2011. Retrieved 11 October 2009, from http://www.mcys.gov.sg
Ministry of Education. (2009). Choosing Your Secondary Schools for Admission to Secondary One in 2010.
MOE. Co-Curricular Activities. Retrieved 4 October 2009, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/secondary/cca
MOE (2009). Community Involvement Programme (CIP) and Service Learning. Retrieved 30 September 2009, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/secondary/cip/
MOE. (2009). Frequently Asked Questions: GEP Pupils. Retrieved 10 October 2009, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/programmes/gifted-education-programme/faq/gep-pupils/
MOE. (2005). Review of the Normal (technical) Course.
MOE (2009). Special Education: Education Path. Retrieved 15 October 2009, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/special-education/path/
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Bundy, D. A. (2001). The Predictive Value of IQ. Wayne State University Press, 47, 1-41.
Whitaker, Simon. (2008). WISC-IV and low IQ: review and comparison with the WAIS-III. Educational Psychology in Practice, 24, 129-137.
